What Kind of Art Was Created by Arapahoe Native Americans

Native American tribe

Arapaho

Hinono'eino
Total population
x,861 (2010)[ane]
Regions with significant populations
United States (Colorado, Oklahoma, Nebraska, Wyoming)
Languages
English, Arapaho, Plains Sign Linguistic communication
Faith
Christianity, Peyotism, Traditional religions
Related ethnic groups
Algonquian people, Cheyenne people, Gros Ventre people

The Arapaho (; French: Arapahos, Gens de Vache ) are a Native American people historically living on the plains of Colorado and Wyoming. They were shut allies of the Cheyenne tribe and loosely aligned with the Lakota and Dakota.

By the 1850s, Arapaho bands formed 2 tribes, namely the Northern Arapaho and Southern Arapaho. Since 1878, the Northern Arapaho have lived with the Eastern Shoshone on the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming and are federally recognized equally the Arapahoe Tribe of the Wind River Reservation. The Southern Arapaho live with the Southern Cheyenne in Oklahoma. Together, their members are enrolled every bit the federally recognized Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes.

Names [edit]

It is uncertain where the word 'Arapaho' came from. Europeans may have derived information technology from the Pawnee give-and-take for "trader", iriiraraapuhu, or it may have been a corruption of a Crow word for "tattoo", alapúuxaache. The Arapaho autonym is Hinono'eino or Inun-ina ("our people" or "people of our own kind"). They refer to their tribe every bit Hinono'eiteen (Arapaho Nation). The Cheyenne called them Hitanwo'iv or Hetanevoeo/Hetanevo'eo'o ("People of the Sky" or "Cloud People"); the Dakota equally Mahpíyato ("Blue Cloud Men"), and the Lakota and Assiniboine referred to them as Maȟpíya thó ("Blue Sky People").

The Caddo ( Toniibeenenno' or Toniibeeneseino' – "pierced olfactory organ people") called them Detseka'yaa , the Wichita ( Hinosouno' )^[2] Nia'rhari'southward-kûrikiwa'ahûski , and the Comanche Saria Tʉhka / Säretika (Sata Teichas) , all names signifying "dog-eaters". The Pawnee, Ute and other tribes as well referred to them with names signifying "dog-eaters".

The Northern Arapaho, who called themselves Nank'haanseine'nan or Nookhose'iinenno ("white sage men"), were known as Baantcline'nan or Bo'oociinenno ("red willow men") to the Southern Arapaho, whereas the latter were called past their northern kin Nawathi'neha or Noowunenno' ("Southerners"). The Northern Arapaho were also known as BSakuune'na' (Bee'eekuunnenno') ("claret-soup men").^[3]

The Cheyenne adapted the Arapaho terms and referred to the Northern Arapaho as Vanohetan or Vanohetaneo / Váno'étaneo'o ("Sage (Brush) People") and to the Southern Arapaho as Nomsen'nat or Nomsen'eo ("Southerners").^[iv]

Historic political and dialect Arapaho divisions and bands [edit]

The Arapaho recognize five principal divisions among their people, each speaking a different dialect and apparently representing as many originally distinct but cognate tribes. Through much of Arapaho history, each tribal nation maintained a separate indigenous identity, although they occasionally came together and acted as political allies.

Each spoke mutually intelligible dialects, which differed from Arapaho proper. Dialectally, the Haa'ninin, Beesowuunenno', and Hinono'eino were closely related. Arapaho elders claimed that the Hánahawuuena dialect was the about hard to comprehend of all the dialects.

In his archetype ethnographic study, Alfred Kroeber identified these five nations from south to north:

• Nanwacinaha'ana, Nawathi'neha ("Toward the South People") or Nanwuine'nan / Noowo3iineheeno' ("Southern People"). Their at present-extinct language dialect – Nawathinehena – was the most divergent from the other Arapaho tribes.
• Hánahawuuena, Hananaxawuune'nan or Aanû'nhawa ("Rock Men" or "Rock People"), occupying territory adjacent to, but further north of the Nanwacinaha'ana, spoke the now-extinct Ha'anahawunena dialect.
• Hinono'eino or Hinanae'inan ("Arapaho proper") spoke the Arapaho language (Heenetiit).
• Beesowuunenno', Baasanwuune'nan or Bäsawunena ("Large Social club People" or "Brush-Hut/Shelter People") resided further north of the Hinono'eino. Their war parties used temporary brush shelters similar to the dome-shaped shade or Sweat lodge of the Great Lakes Algonquian peoples. They are said to take migrated from their old territory nearly the Lakes more recently than the other Arapaho tribes. (Note: many people say their name means "Great Lakes People" or "Big Water People".) They spoke the at present-extinct Besawunena (Beesoowuuyeitiit – "Big Lodge/Bully Lakes language") dialect.
• Haa'ninin, A'aninin or A'ani ("White Clay People" or "Lime People"), the northernmost tribal grouping; they retained a distinct ethnicity and were known to the French as the celebrated Gros Ventre. In Blackfoot they were called Atsina (Atsíína – "like a Cree", i.e. "enemy", or Piik-siik-sii-naa – "snakes", i.e. "enemies"). Later they separated, the other Arapaho peoples, who considered them junior, called them Hitúnĕna or Hittiuenina ("Begging Men", "Beggars", or more than exactly "Spongers"). They speak the virtually extinct Gros Ventre (Ananin, Ahahnelin) language dialect (called by the Arapaho Hitouuyeitiit – "Begging Men Linguistic communication"), in that location is evidence that the southern Haa'ninin tribal grouping, the Staetan band, together with bands of the later political division of the Northern Arapaho, spoke the Besawunena dialect.

Earlier their historic geo-political ethnogenesis, each tribal-nation had a master headman. The exact date of the ethnic fusion or fission of each social partitioning is not known. The elders say that the Hinono'eino ("Arapaho proper") and Beesowuunenno' ("Large Lodge People" or "Brush-Hut/Shelter People") fought over the tribal symbols – the sacred pipage and lance. Both sacred objects traditionally were kept by the Beesowuunenno' . The different tribal-nations lived together and the Beesowuunenno' have dispersed for at least 150 years among the formerly distinct Arapaho tribal groups.

By the late 18th century, the four divisions due south of the Haa'ninin ("White Clay People" or "Lime People") or Gros Ventre (Atsina) consolidated into the Arapaho. Only the Arapaho and Gros Ventre (Atsina) identified every bit split tribal-nations.

While living on the Keen Plains, the Hinono'eino (all Arapaho bands southward of the Haa'ninin) divided historically into two geopolitical social divisions:

• Northern Arapaho or Nank'haanseine'nan ("Sagebrush People"), Nookhose'iinenno ("White Sage People"); are called by the Southern Arapaho Bo'ooceinenno' or Baachinena ("red willow men"); the Kiowa know them as Tägyäko ("Sagebrush People"), a translation of their proper name. They go on the sacred tribal articles, and are considered the nucleus or mother tribe of the Arapaho, being indicated in the Plains Indian Sign Language (Bee3sohoet) past the sign for "mother people". They absorbed the celebrated Hánahawuuena and Beesowuunenno' . An estimated l persons of Beesowuunenno' lineage are included among the Northern Arapaho, and perhaps a few with the other 2 main divisions.
• Southern Arapaho, Náwunena or Noowunenno' ("Southern People"), are called by the Northern Arapaho Nawathi'neha ("Southerners"); the Kiowa know them equally Ähayädal, the (plural) name for the wild plum. The sign for the Southern Arapaho is fabricated by rubbing the index finger confronting the side of the nose. They absorbed the historic Nanwuine'nan / Noowo3iineheeno ("Southern People") and some Beesowuunenno' .

Linguistic communication [edit]

The Arapaho language is currently spoken in two dissimilar dialects, and information technology is considered to be a member of the Algonquian language family. The number of fluent speakers of Northern Arapaho dwindles at 250, most living on the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming, while the number of Southern Arapaho speakers is even more than scarce, only a scattering of people speak it, all avant-garde in age.^[five]

According to Cowell & Moss's 2008 written report of the Arapaho language, the Northern Arapaho have made a great effort to maintain the linguistic communication through establishing the Language and Culture Commission. Past producing audio and visual materials, they have provided means for younger generations to larn the linguistic communication. They have matched this effort with a preschool immersion program and is offered all throughout grade schoolhouse. However, the number of students that have the subject is wavering and those who learn typically merely retain a selection of memorized vocabulary. There is widespread interest in keeping the language alive for the Northern Arapaho, and their outlook remains positive in their endeavors to perpetuate the learning of Arapaho in schools and among their children and immature people. However, this attitude is ofttimes counteracted by the lack of true commitment and willingness to really larn and become fluent, underscored by a misunderstanding of its deep roots and purpose.

For Southern Arapaho, the language is non quite as valued as it is on the Wind River Reservation. Nigh have lost involvement in learning or maintaining it, and until recently, in that location were little to no efforts to preserve their dialect. There is a small number who have begun online courses conducted via video in an attempt to revitalize a desire to acquire it, and popularity has increased over the by few years.^[vi]

Histories [edit]

Early on history [edit]

Pouch, Arapaho (Native American), Late 19th or early on 20th century, Brooklyn Museum

Around 3,000 years ago, the ancestral Arapaho-speaking people (Heeteinono'eino' ) lived in the western Great Lakes region along the Cherry-red River Valley in what is classified as present-day Manitoba, Canada and Minnesota, Us.^[vii] In that location the Arapaho were an agronomical people who grew crops, including maize.^[8] Following European colonization in eastern Canada, together with the early on Cheyenne people (Hitesiino'), the Arapaho were forced to migrate westward onto the eastern Great Plains by the Ojibwe. They were numerous and powerful, having obtained guns from their French trading allies.

The ancestors of the Arapaho people entered the Great Plains the western Great Lakes region one-time before 1700. During their early history on the plains, the Arapaho lived on the northern plains from the South Saskatchewan River in Canada south to Montana, Wyoming, and western S Dakota. Before the Arapaho caused horses, they used domestic dogs as pack animals to pull their travois. The Arapaho acquired horses in the early 1700s from other tribes, which changed their way of life. They became nomadic people, using the horses equally pack and riding animals. They could transport greater loads, and travel more hands past horseback to chase more hands and widely, increasing their success in hunting on the Plains.

Gradually, the Arapaho moved farther due south, dissever into the closely centrolineal Northern and Southern Arapaho, and established a large joint territory spanning land in southern Montana, nigh of Wyoming, the Nebraska Panhandle, central and eastern Colorado, western Oklahoma, and extreme western Kansas. A large group of Arapaho dissever from the main tribe and became an independent people, unremarkably known as the Gros Ventre (as named past the French) or Atsina. The proper noun Gros Ventre, significant "Big Bellies" in French, was a misinterpretation of sign language between an Indian guide and French explorers. The Gros Ventre spoke an Algonquian linguistic communication like to Arapaho after the division; they identified as A'aninin, meaning ″White Clay people″. The Arapaho often viewed the Gros Ventre every bit inferior and referred to them every bit Hitúnĕna or Hitouuteen, meaning "beggars".^[9]

Expansion on the plains [edit]

In one case established, the Arapaho began to expand on the plains through merchandise, warfare, and alliances with other plains tribes. Around 1811, the Arapaho fabricated an alliance with the Cheyenne (Hítesíínoʼ – 'scarred i').^[10] Their strong brotherhood with the Cheyenne allowed the Arapaho to greatly expand their hunting territory. By 1826, the Lakota, Dakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho pushed the Kiowa (Niiciiheihiinennoʼ; Kiowa tribe: Niiciiheihiiteen) and invading Comanche to the south. Conflict with the allied Comanche and Kiowa concluded in 1840 when the two large tribes made peace with the Arapaho and Southern Cheyenne and became their allies.^[11]

Main Little Raven was the almost notable Arapaho chief; he helped mediate peace among the nomadic southern plains tribes and would retain his reputation as a peace master throughout the Indian Wars and reservation menstruation.^[12] The alliance with the Comanche and Kiowa made the most southern Arapaho bands powerful enough to enter the Llano Estacado in the Texas Panhandle. 1 ring of Southern Arapaho became so closely allied with the Comanche that they were absorbed into the tribe, adopted the Comanche language, and became a band of Comanche known as the Saria Tʉhka (Sata Teichas) 'dog-eaters'.

Along the upper Missouri River, the Arapaho actively traded with the farming villages of the Arikara, Mandan, and Hidatsa, trading meat and hides for corn, squash, and beans. The Arikara referred to the Arapaho equally the "Colored Stone Village (People)", maybe because gemstones from the Southwest were amid the trade items. The Hidatsa chosen them E-tah-leh or Ita-Iddi ('bison-path people'), referring to their hunting of bison.

Conflict with Euro-American traders and explorers was limited at the time. The Arapaho freely entered diverse trading posts and trade fairs to exchange more often than not bison hides and beaver furs for European goods such as firearms. The Arapaho frequently encountered fur traders in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains, and the headwaters of the Platte and Arkansas. They became well-known traders on the plains and adjoining Rocky Mountains. The proper name Arapaho may have been derived from the Pawnee word Tirapihu (or Larapihu), meaning "he buys or trades" or "traders". The Arapaho were a prominent trading group in the Great Plains region. The term may too have come from European-American traders referring to them past their Crow (Apsáalooke aliláau) name of Alappahoʼ, which meant 'people with many tattoos'. By custom the Arapaho tattooed pocket-sized circles on their bodies. The name Arapaho became widespread among the white traders.

Enemies and warrior culture [edit]

Painting of Black Man, an Arapaho warrior with face paint and feathers. Past E. A. Burbank, 1899.

Ledger drawing of a mounted Arapaho warrior fighting a group of Navajo or Pueblo warriors, c. 1880

A big role of Arapaho club was based around the warrior. Near young men sought this office. Later adopting employ of the equus caballus, the Arapaho quickly became master horsemen and highly skilled at fighting on horseback. Warriors had larger roles than combat in the society. They were expected to keep peace amid the camps, provide food and wealth for their families, and guard the camps from attacks.

Similar other plains Indians, including their Cheyenne allies, the Arapaho have a number of singled-out military societies. Each of the viii Arapaho military societies had their ain unique initiation rites, pre- and post- battle ceremonies and songs, regalia, and mode of combat. Unlike their Cheyenne, Lakota, and Dakota allies, the Arapaho military societies were age based. Each age level had its own society for prestigious or promising warriors of the matching historic period.^[13] As the warriors aged, they may graduate to the next gild.

Warriors often painted their face and bodies with war paint, as well as their horses, for spiritual empowerment. Each warrior created a unique design for the war pigment which they frequently wore into battle. Feathers from birds, particularly eagle feathers, were also worn in battle as symbols of prestige and for reasons like to state of war paint. Earlier setting out for war, the warriors organized into state of war parties. State of war parties were made upwards of individual warriors and a selected war chief. The title of war main must be earned through a specific number of acts of bravery in battle known as counting coup. Coups may include stealing horses while undetected, touching a living enemy, or stealing a gun from an enemy'south grasp. Arapaho warriors used a variety of weapons, including war-clubs, lances, knives, tomahawks, bows, shotguns, rifles, and pistols. They acquired guns through trade at trading posts or trade fairs, in addition to raiding soldiers or other tribes.

The Arapaho fought with the Pawnee (Hooxeihiinenno' – "wolf people"), Omaha (Howohoono' ), Ho-chunk, Osage (Wosootiinen, Wosoo3iinen or Wosoosiinen), Ponca (same equally Omaha: Howohoono' ), and Kaw (Honoho' ) due east of their territory. North of Arapaho territory they fought with the Crow (Houunenno' ), Blackfoot Confederacy (Woo'teenixteet or Woo'teenixtee3i' – ″people wearing black-feet″), Gros Ventre (Hitouunenno' , Gros Ventre tribe: Hitouuteen), Flathead (Kookee'ei3i' ), Arikara (Koonoonii3i' – ″people whose jaws break in pieces″), Iron Confederacy (Nehiyaw-Pwat) (Assiniboine (Nihooneihteenootineihino' - "xanthous-footed Sioux"), Plains/Wood Cree (Nooku(h)nenno' ; Plains Cree tribe: Nookuho' - "rabbit people"), Saulteaux (Plains Ojibwa) and Nakoda (Stoney)). To the westward they fought with eastern Shoshone (Sosoni'ii; Shoshone tribe: Sosoni'iiteen) and the Ute (Wo'(o)teenehi3i' - ″cut throats″; Ute tribe: Wo'(o)teennehhiiteen). South of their territory they occasionally fought with the Navajo (Coohoh'oukutoo3i' – ″those who tie their hair in back of the head or in bunches″), Apache (Coo3o' – "enemy" or Teebe'eisi3i' – "they take their hair cutting directly, hanging direct down", Ti'iihiinen – "killdeer people" refers especially to Jicarilla Apache) and diverse Pueblo peoples (Cooh'ookutoo3i' – "they necktie their pilus in a bundle").

The Cheyenne (Hitesiino' ), Sioux (Nootineihino' ), Kiowa (Niiciiheihiinenno' – ″river people″ or Koh'ówuunénno' – ″creek people″; Kiowa tribe: Niiciiheihiiteen or Koh'ówuunteen), Plains Apache (3oxooheinen – "pounder people"), and Comanche (Coo3o' – sg. and pl., means: "enemy", like Apache)^[14] were enemies of the Arapaho initially but became their allies. Together with their allies, the Arapaho also fought with invading US soldiers, miners, and settlers across Arapaho territory and the territory of their allies.^[15]

Sand Creek Massacre [edit]

Ledger drawing of a scene from the massacre by Cheyenne eyewitness and artist Howling Wolf.

Events Leading to the Sand Creek Massacre [edit]

Several skirmishes had ignited hatred from white settlers that lived in the expanse, and left Arapaho and Cheyenne tribes in constant fearfulness of being attacked by American troops. For example, on April 12, 1864, a rancher brought troops to attack a group of 15 warriors who had asked for advantage from bringing his mules back to him. The warriors acted in cocky-defense and sent the troops running.^[16] Discussion got back to Colonel John Chivington, and they had told him the Indians shot get-go. He likewise heard there were 175 cattle caput stolen from the government. Chivington "ordered troops to find and 'chastise' the 'Indians'." Soldiers burned villages and sought out to kill Indians, the violence escalating months earlier the Sand Creek Massacre.

In an effort to establish peace, John Evans attempted to extend an offer of refuge and protection to "friendly" Indians. Withal, these efforts were trampled by Full general Curtis'^[17] military expedition confronting tribes between the Platte and Arkansas Rivers. By this point, both Arapaho and Cheyenne tribes thought that an all out state of war of extermination was virtually to rage against them, so they rapidly fled, and Curtis and his men never met them.^[18]

Sand Creek Massacre [edit]

Nowadays twenty-four hour period marker of the Sand Creek Massacre site in Kiowa Canton, Colorado.

In November 1864, the Colorado militia, led by Colonel John Chivington, massacred a small village of Cheyenne and Arapaho in the Sand Creek massacre.^[19] Co-ordinate to a historical narrative on the outcome titled "Chief Left Hand", past Margaret Coel, there were several events that led to the Colorado militia's attack on the village. Governor Evans desired to hold title to the resource-rich Denver-Boulder expanse. The authorities trust officials avoided Chief Left Hand, a linguistically gifted Southern Arapaho chief, when executing their treaty that transferred the title of the surface area away from Indian Trust. The local cavalry was stretched sparse by the demands of the Ceremonious State of war while Indian warriors, interim independently of Main Left Hand, raided their supply lines. A group of Arapaho and Cheyenne elders with women and children had been denied their traditional wintering grounds in Boulder past the cavalry and were ordered to come to Fort Lyon for food and protection or be considered hostile.

On arrival at Lyon, Chief Left Mitt and his followers were accused of violence by Colonel Chivington. Chief Left Hand and his people got the message that only those Indians that reported to Fort Lyon would be considered peaceful and all others would be considered hostile and ordered killed. Confused, Chief Left Hand and his followers turned away and traveled a safe distance away from the fort to camp. A traitor gave Colonel Chivington directions to the camp. He and his battalion stalked and attacked the campsite early the side by side morning. Rather than heroic, Colonel Chivington's efforts were considered a gross embarrassment to the Cavalry since he attacked peaceful elders, women, and children.^[20] As a result of his war efforts, instead of receiving the promotion to which he aspired, he was relieved of his duties.

Eugene Ridgely, a Cheyenne–Northern Arapaho creative person, is credited with bringing to light the fact that Arapahos were among the victims of the massacre. His children, Gail Ridgely, Benjamin Ridgley, and Eugene "Snowball" Ridgely, were instrumental in having the massacre site designated as a National Celebrated Site. In 1999, Benjamin and Gail Ridgley organized a group of Northern Arapaho runners to run from Limon, Colorado, to Ethete, Wyoming, in memory of their ancestors who were forced to run for their lives later on beingness attacked and pursued by Colonel Chivington and his battalion. Their efforts will be recognized and remembered by the "Sand Creek Massacre" signs that appear along the roadways from Limon to Casper, Wyoming, then to Ethete.

Why the Sand Creek Massacre Occurred [edit]

The violence that ensued was securely rooted in the Indian-antisocial past American settlers in the surface area. Their perception was that "their nascent settlements were indeed surrounded by Indians",^[21] and their inexperience in dealing with Indians was what sparked the Sand Creek Massacre.

Indian Wars on the Southern Plains [edit]

The events at Sand Creek sparked outrage among the Arapaho and Cheyenne, resulting in three decades of state of war betwixt them and the U.s.. Much of the hostilities took place in Colorado, leading to many of the events being referred to as part of the so-chosen Colorado War. Battles and hostilities elsewhere on the southern plains such as in Kansas and Texas are often included as office of the "Comanche Wars". During the wars, the Arapaho and Cheyenne allies—the Kiowa, Comanche, and Plains Apache—would participate in some battles aslope them. The Lakota from the north came downward into northern Colorado to help the Arapaho and Cheyenne in that location. The Boxing of Julesburg resulted from a force of about 1,000 allied Northern Arapaho, Cheyenne (by and large from the Dog Soldiers warrior society), and Lakota from the Brulé and Oglala sub-tribes. The indicate of the raid was retaliation for the events at the Sand Creek Massacre months before. The allied Indian forces attacked settlers and US Ground forces forces around the valley of the Southward Platte River near Julesburg, Colorado. The boxing was a decisive Indian victory, resulting in fourteen soldiers and iv civilians expressionless and probably no Indian casualties. A force of around 3,000 Southern Arapaho, Northern Cheyenne, and Lakota attacked soldiers and civilians at a bridge crossing the N Platte River, known as the Battle of Platte Bridge. The boxing was another victory for the Indians, with 29 soldiers killed and at least 8 Indian casualties. Arapaho, Cheyenne, Comanche, Kiowa, and Plains Apaches seeking peace were offered to sign the Medicine Lodge Treaty in Oct 1867. The treaty allotted the Southern Arapaho a reservation with the Southern Cheyenne between the Arkansas and Cimarron rivers in Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma).^[22] Among those that signed the treaty was Chief Little Raven. Those that did not sign the treaty were chosen "hostile" and were continually pursued by the US Army and their Indian scouts. The terminal major battle betwixt the Arapaho and the US on the southern plains was the Battle of Height Springs in northernmost Colorado. The battle involved a forcefulness of around 450 Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Lakota warriors and 244 Usa soldiers and around fifty Pawnee scouts nether Frank North.^[23] The most prominent Indian leader at the battle was Alpine Bull, a leader of the Domestic dog Soldiers warrior society of the Cheyenne. The battle was a U.s.a. victory with effectually 35 warriors killed (including Alpine Balderdash) and a further 17 captured. The soldiers suffered only a single casualty. The death of Alpine Balderdash was a major loss for the Dog Soldiers.

Pulverization River Expedition [edit]

After the Sand Creek Massacre and a number of other skirmishes, the Northern Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Lakota moved many of their bands to the remote Powder River country in Wyoming and southern Montana. Along the way, they participated in the Boxing of Mud Springs, a minor incident in the Nebraska Panhandle involving a force of between 500 and 1,000 Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Lakota warriors and 230 US soldiers. The battle resulted in the capture of some ground forces horses and a herd of several hundred cattle with a single United states casualty.^[24] An endeavour was made past the regular army to recapture their stolen livestock and attack the Indians, which resulted in the Battle of Rush Creek.^[25] The battle was inconclusive, resulting in only one Indian casualty and three Usa soldiers dead (with a further viii wounded). Lt. Col. William O. Collins, commander of the regular army forces, stated that pursuing the Indian forces any further through the dry Sand Hills area would be "injudicious and useless". Once in the area of the Powder River, the Arapaho noticed an increase in travelers moving along the established Bozeman trail, which led to the Montana goldfields. Settlers and miners traveling on the Bozeman Trail through the Pulverisation River country were viewed as threats past the Indians as they were numerous and were ofttimes violent towards encountered Indians and competed for food along the trail.

Hostilities in the Powder River area led Major General Grenville M. Contrivance to order the Powder River Expedition as a castigating campaign against the Arapaho, Lakota, and Cheyenne. The expedition was inconclusive with neither side gaining a definitive victory. The centrolineal Indian forces mostly evaded the soldiers except for raids on their supplies which left most soldiers desperately nether-equipped. The well-nigh significant battle was the Battle of the Tongue River where Brigadier General Patrick Edward Connor ordered Frank Due north and his Pawnee Scouts to find a military camp of Arapaho Indians under the leadership of Chief Black Behave. Once located, Connor sent in 200 soldiers with two howitzers and 40 Omaha and Winnebago and thirty Pawnee scouts, and marched toward the village that night. Indian warriors acting as scouts for the United states of america Regular army came from the Pawnee, Omaha, and Winnebago tribes who were traditional enemies of the Arapaho and their Cheyenne and Lakota allies. With mountain man Jim Bridger leading the forces, they charged the army camp.^[26] Most of the Arapaho warriors were gone on a raid against the Crow, and the battle was a US victory resulting in 63 Arapaho dead, by and large women and children. The few warriors nowadays at the military camp put up a strong defense and covered the women and children as most escaped beyond the achieve of the soldiers and Indian scouts.^[27] Afterward the battle, the soldiers burned and looted the abandoned tipis. Connor singled out iv Winnebago, including chief Piddling Priest, plus North and 15 Pawnee for bravery. The Pawnee fabricated off with 500 horses from the campsite's herd as payback for previous raids by the Arapaho. The Arapaho were not intimidated by the attack and launched a counterattack resulting in the Sawyers Fight where Arapaho warriors attacked a group of surveyors, resulting in three dead and no Arapaho losses.

Red Cloud'southward War [edit]

Red Cloud'south State of war was a state of war fought between soldiers of the United states of america and the allied Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Northern Arapaho from 1866 to 1868. The state of war was named afterward the prominent Oglala Lakota chief Crimson Deject who led many followers into battle with the invading soldiers. The state of war was a response to the large number of miners and settlers passing through the Bozeman Trail, which was the fastest and easiest trail from Fort Laramie to the Montana goldfields. The Bozeman Trail passed correct through the Powder River Country which was near the middle of Arapaho, Cheyenne, Lakota, and Dakota territory in Wyoming and southern Montana. The large number of miners and settlers competed straight with the Indians for resources such equally food forth the trail.^[28]

The most meaning boxing during Red Cloud's State of war was the Fetterman Fight, also known as Battle of The Hundred in the Hand to the Indian forces fought on December 21, 1866. The Battle involved Capt. William J. Fetterman who led a force of 79 soldiers and two civilians after a grouping of x Indian decoys planning on luring Fetterman's forces into an ambush. The 10 decoys consisted of 2 Arapaho, two Cheyenne, and 6 Lakota. Fetterman was well known for his boastful nature and his inexperience fighting Indian warriors and despite orders to non pursue the decoys did so anyway. Jim Bridger, famous Mountain Man and guide to the soldiers stationed at Fort Laramie, commented on how the soldiers "don't know anything about fighting Indians".^[29] After about a one-half-mile pursuit, the decoys signaled the hidden warriors to ambush Fetterman and his forces. Warriors from both sides of the trail charged Fetterman and forced them into nearby rocks where the battle soon became hand-to-mitt combat, giving the Indians the upper hand due to their skill in fighting with handheld weapons such as tomahawks and state of war clubs. The Indian forces killed all of Fetterman's infantry, likewise as the following cavalry, with a total of 81 killed. The battle was the greatest military defeat by the U.s. on the Bully Plains until the Boxing of the Little Bighorn 10 years afterwards. Red Cloud's State of war ended in a victory for the Arapaho, Cheyenne, Lakota, and Dakota. The Treaty of Fort Laramie guaranteed legal control of the Powder River country to the Indians.

Cracking Sioux State of war of 1876–77 [edit]

Main Blackness Coal, among the most influential Arapaho chiefs of his time. Chief Anthracite coal was able to largely keep the Arapaho at peace with the U.s.a. and out of the Great Sioux war of 1876.

The Great Sioux War of 1876–77, also known as the Blackness Hills War or Great Cheyenne War, was a major conflict that was fought between the Lakota Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho brotherhood and the US Army. The war was started after miners and settlers traveled into the Blackness Hills surface area and found gold, resulting in increased numbers of non-Indians illegally entering designated Indian lands. A large part of Cheyenne and Arapaho territory and most of Sioux territory known as the Cracking Sioux Reservation was guaranteed legally to the tribes past the Treaty of Fort Laramie later they defeated the US during Red Cloud's War in 1868.^[30] The Black Hills in detail are viewed as sacred to the Lakota and Dakota peoples, and the presence of settlers illegally occupying the area caused great unrest within the tribes. Instead of evicting the settlers, the US Army broke the treaty and invaded Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho territory in order to protect American settlers and put the allied tribes on smaller reservations or wiped them out.

Later on Cherry-red Cloud's War, many Northern Arapaho moved to the Ruby Cloud Bureau in Dakota Territory and lived among the Lakota, as well as many Cheyenne. Among the virtually influential and respected Arapaho chiefs living on the Agency was Chief Anthracite coal (Northern Arapaho), who gained prominence as a warrior and leader against white settlers in the Powder River country. Other important Arapaho chiefs living in the surface area included Medicine Man, Main Blackness Bear, Sorrel Horse, Picayune Shield, Sharp Nose, Little Wolf, Plenty Acquit, and Friday. The Arapaho chief Friday was well regarded for his intelligence and served as an interpreter between the tribe and the Americans.^[31] Anthracite coal guaranteed to the Americans that he and his people would remain peaceful during the tense times when the settlers were illegally entering Indian land in hopes of securing recognized territory of their own in Wyoming. Many of the warriors and families that disagreed with Black coal's ideals drifted s to join upward with the southern segmentation of Arapahos. Many Arapaho, particularly those in Primary Medicine Man'due south band, did not wish to reside amongst the Sioux "for fear of mixing themselves upwards with other tribes".^[32] Their peaceful stance and willingness to aid American soldiers strained once strong relations between them and the Lakota and Cheyenne, who took an ambitious opinion and fled the reservation. Attitudes towards the Arapaho from the "hostile" Lakota and Cheyenne were similar to the attitudes they had towards members of their own tribes which took like peaceful stances and remained as "reservation Indians". Despite their unwillingness to take up the warpath, the Arapaho were unwilling to cede their territory, particularly the Black Hills area to which they have a strong spiritual attachment similar to the Lakota.^[33]

Y'all have come up here to speak with u.s.a. most the Blackness Hills, and, without discussing anything that we say, and without changing anything that we say, we wish to tell the Swell father [President of the U.s.a.] when you go back that this is the country in which we were brought upwards, and it has too been given to usa by treaty by the great father. And I am here to take care of the country, and therefore, not just the Dakota [Sioux] Indians, but my people have an interest in the Black Hills that we have come up to speak about today.

—Anthracite coal^[34]

During this fourth dimension of slap-up unrest, the tribe found itself deteriorating in leadership with many chiefs holding footling sway among their bands. In order to regain force as leaders and further negotiations for land in Wyoming, many chiefs and their warriors enlisted as army scouts for the U.s.a. and campaigned against their allies. Main Sharp Olfactory organ, who was considered as influential and equal to Black Coal, was noted as "the inspiration of the battleground  ... He handled men with rare judgment and coolness, and was as pocket-size as he was brave".^[35] Despite their overall stance as allies for the Americans, a scattering of Arapaho warriors fought against the The states in primal battles during the war.

Similar in previous wars, the US recruited Indian warriors from tribes that were enemies with the Arapaho–Cheyenne–Lakota–Dakota alliance to act as Indian scouts, most notably from the Crow, Arikara, and Shoshone. Dissimilar previous conflicts involving the Lakota–Dakota–Cheyenne–Arapaho brotherhood and the United States, the Great Sioux War ended in a victory for the U.s.a.. The bison herds which were the middle of life for the Indians were considerably smaller due to government-supported whole-calibration slaughter in order to foreclose collisions with railroads, conflict with ranch cattle, and to force nomadic plains Indians to adopt reservation life living off government handouts. Decreased resources and starvation was the major reason for the surrendering of individual Indian bands and the end of the Keen Sioux War.

Ledger cartoon of an Arapaho warrior riding downwardly a U.S. soldier (1880)

Ledger drawing of an Arapaho warrior with headdress, counting coup with burglarize butt on a U.South. soldier.

Ledger drawing of an Arapaho warrior in battle with a U.S. soldier on horseback.

The nearly significant battle of the war was the Battle of The Piffling Bighorn on June 25–26, 1876. The battle was fought between warriors from the Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho (as well as individual Dakota warriors) and the 7th Cavalry Regiment of the U.s.a. Army. The battle was fought along the Little Bighorn River in eastern Montana. The soldiers attempted to ambush the large camp of Indians along the river bottom despite the warnings from the Crow Scouts who knew that Custer severely underestimated the number of warriors in the camp. The US Seventh Cavalry, including the Custer Battalion, a force of 700 men led by George Armstrong Custer, suffered a severe defeat. V of the Seventh Cavalry's companies were annihilated. The total Usa casualty count, including scouts, was 268 dead including Custer and 55 injured. But 5 Arapaho were present at the battle and their presence was by chance.^[36] The Arapaho nowadays were iv Northern Arapaho warriors named Yellow Eagle, Yellowish Wing, Left Hand, and Water Man. The 5th Arapaho was a Southern Arapaho named Well-Knowing I (Sage) simply likewise known as Green Grass. The v Arapaho set out as a war party from near Fort Robinson to raid the Shoshone, just by chance came across a pocket-sized party of young Sioux warriors. The Sioux thought that the Arapaho were United States Army Indian Scouts and invited them back to their camp along the Little Bighorn River, where they were captured and had their guns taken from them. The Lakota and Dakota threatened to impale the Arapaho, just the Cheyenne chief Ii Moons recognized the men as Arapaho and ordered their release. The next solar day was the boxing and, despite being viewed with suspicion, the five Arapaho actively fought in the battle. H2o Human being wore a large eagle plume headdress, a white shirt, beaded leggings, a breechcloth, and painted his face red and yellow during the battle. Water Man claimed killing one soldier while charging upward the steep river banks but did non take his scalp considering most Arapaho refused to take a scalp from someone with short hair. Water Human being claimed to have watched Custer dice.^[37]

When I reached the elevation of the hill I saw Custer. He was dressed in buckskin, glaze and pants, and was on his hands and knees. He had been shot through the side and in that location was blood coming from his mouth. He seemed to be watching the Indians moving around him. Four soldiers were sitting up around him, but they were all desperately wounded. All the other soldiers were down. So the Indians airtight in around him, and I did not encounter whatsoever more. About of the dead soldiers had been killed by arrows, as they had arrows sticking in them. The side by side fourth dimension I saw Custer he was dead, and some Indians were taking his buckskin clothes.

—Water Man

The Arapaho warrior Left Hand accidentally killed a Lakota warrior that he mistook for an Arikara scout, and despite farther anger from the Lakota, left the boxing live along with the other four Arapaho.^[38] After the battle, the five Arapaho quietly slipped away and headed back to the Fort Robinson area.

Civilization [edit]

Creation myth [edit]

The creation myth of the Arapaho people shows a connection with the Algonquian people. Both cultures accept an "earth-diver cosmos myth". The Arapaho myth begins with a being chosen Apartment Pipe who exists alone upon the water. The Great Spirit suggests to Flat Piping that he create creatures to build a earth. He get-go conceives of ducks and other water birds who swoop beneath the surface of the h2o but are non able to notice land. With guidance from the Great Spirit, Apartment Pipage creates a turtle who tin can live on both land or in the water. The Turtle dives and returns, spitting out a piece of country that grows into the earth. Flat Pipage then goes about creating men, women, and animals to populate the world. The turtle is mutual to many "earth-diver" creation myths.^[39]

This myth is an example of "cosmos by thought". Flat Pipage creates the creatures past thinking of them.^[39]

Gender and division of labor [edit]

Traditionally, men are responsible for hunting.^[40] Later on horses were introduced, buffalo became the chief food source—the meat, organs, and the blood all beingness consumed. Blood was drunk or made into pudding.^[41] Women (and haxu'xan (Two Spirits))^[42] are traditionally in charge of food grooming and dressing hides to make wear and bedding, saddles, and housing materials.^{[40] [43]}

The Arapaho have historically had social and spiritual roles for those who are known in contemporary Native cultures as Two Spirit or third gender.^{[42] [44]} Anthropologist Alfred Kroeber wrote virtually male-bodied individuals who lived every bit women, the haxu'xan, who he says were believed to have "the natural want to go women, and as they grew up gradually became women" (and could marry men);^{[42] [44]} he farther stated that the Arapaho believed that the haxu'xan'south gender was a supernatural gift from birds or other animals, that they had miraculous powers, and they were also noted for their inventiveness, such equally making the first intoxicant from rainwater.^[42]

Clothing [edit]

On the Plains, women (and haxu'xan)^[42] historically wore moccasins, leggings, and talocrural joint-length buckskin-fringed dresses, ornamented with porcupine quills, paint, elk teeth, and chaplet.^[43] Men take too worn moccasins, leggings, buckskin breechclothes (drawn between the legs, tied around the waist), and sometimes shirts; warriors have ofttimes worn necklaces.^[43] Many of these items are however function of contemporary dress for both casual and formal wear, or as regalia.

Economic development [edit]

Chief Powder Face with state of war lance associated with the 2nd dance ceremony (biitahanwu), 1864^[45]

In July 2005, Northern Arapahos won a contentious court boxing with the State of Wyoming to get into the gambling or casino manufacture. The 10th Circuit Court ruled that the Country of Wyoming was interim in bad faith when it would not negotiate with the Arapahos for gaming. The Northern Arapaho Tribe opened the start casinos in Wyoming. Presently, the Arapaho Tribe owns and operates loftier-stakes, Class III gaming at the Air current River Casino, the Fiddling Air current Casino, and the 789 Fume Shop and Casino. In 2012, The Wind River Hotel, which is attached to the Wind River Casino, features a cultural room called the Northern Arapaho Experience.^[46] They are regulated by a Gaming Commission equanimous of iii tribal members.

Meanwhile, the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes operate four casinos in Oklahoma: the Lucky Star Casino in Clinton, the Lucky Star Casino in Watonga, the Plume Warrior Casino in Canton, and the newest casino which opened in 2018, the Lucky Star Casino in Hammon.^[47]

Notable Arapahos [edit]

• Margaret Behan (built-in 1948), Arapaho-Cheyenne spiritual elder
• Sherman Coolidge (Runs-on-Top) (1862–1932), Episcopal minister and educator in the Wind River community who was a founding member of the Order of American Indians.^[48]
• Mirac Creepingbear (1947–1990), Arapaho–Kiowa painter
• Viola Hatch (1930-2019), Arapaho activist
• Juanita 50. Learned (1930-1996), starting time adult female chair of the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes of Oklahoma^[49]
• Chief Little Raven (c. 1810–1889), negotiated peace betwixt the Southern Arapaho and Cheyenne and the Comanche, Kiowa, and Plains Apache. He secured rights to the Cheyenne–Arapaho Reservation in Indian Territory.^[50]
• Chief Niwot (c. 1825 – 1864), led a band in Northern Colorado and died from wounds sustained during the Sand Creek Massacre.
• Pretty Olfactory organ (c. 1851 – after 1952), a state of war chief who participated in the Battle of the Little Bighorn
• Carl Sweezy (1881–1953), early professional Native American easel creative person

Run into as well [edit]

• Arapaho language
• Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes
• Wind River Indian Reservation

Citations [edit]

1. ^ "2010 Census CPH-T-vi. American Indian and Alaska Native Tribes in the United States and Puerto Rico: 2010" (PDF). census.gov.
2. ^ "Arapaho text corpus".
3. ^ Fred Eggan, Loretta Fowler: Arapaho Politics, 1851–1978: Symbols in Crises of Say-so, ISBN 978-0803268623
4. ^ Petter, Rodolphe (July v, 2021). English-Cheyenne dictionary. HathiTrust. Kettle Falls, Wash.
5. ^ Cowell, Andrew & Ramsberger, Gail & Menn, Lise. "Dementia and grammar in a polysynthetic language: An Arapaho case study." Language, vol. 93 no. 1, 2017, pp. 97-120. Project MUSE, doi:ten.1353/lan.2017.0002
6. ^ Cowell, Andrew, and Alonzo Moss. The Arapaho Language. University Press of Colorado, 2015.
7. ^ Pritzker 319
8. ^ Pritzker 297
9. ^ "Canadian Indian Tribes". Access Genealogy. (retrieved i November 2011)
10. ^ File of Arapaho Names for other Native American Tribes
11. ^ "Arapaho, Southern". Oklahoma Historical Social club. Archived from the original on September 22, 2013. Retrieved 2013-08-17 .
12. ^ May, Jon D. "Lilliputian Raven (ca. 1810–1889)" Archived July nineteen, 2010, at the Wayback Car Oklahoma Historical Society's Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History & Culture. (accessed 12 December 2013)
13. ^ Waldman xx
14. ^ Dictionary of the Arapaho Language. Northern Arapaho Tribe, Ethete, Wyoming, U.s., 2012
15. ^ Waldman 21
16. ^ Koster, John. The 'Arapaho Five' at the Little Bighorn. 25 Vol. , 2012. Web.
17. ^ Anderson, Jeffrey D. "The History of Time in the Northern Arapaho Tribe." Ethnohistory 2011: 229-62. Web.
18. ^ Fowler, Loretta. "Arapaho and Cheyenne Perspectives: From the 1851 Treaty to the Sand Creek Massacre." The American Indian Quarterly, vol. 39 no. iv, 2015, pp. 364-390. Project MUSE, muse.jhu.edu/article/595116.
19. ^ Smiley, B. "Sand Creek Massacre", Archæology magazine. Archaeological Institute of America. Retrieved February 8, 2010.
20. ^ "United States Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, 1865 (testimonies and study)". University of Michigan Digital Library Product Service. Retrieved March 19, 2008.
21. ^ Blackhawk, Ned. Violence Over the State. United states of america: Harvard University Printing, 2006. Print.
22. ^ May, Jon D. Piddling Raven (ca. 1810–1889). Archived July 19, 2010, at the Wayback Motorcar Oklahoma Historical Social club's Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History & Civilization. (accessed 2 July 2012)
23. ^ Berthrong, Donald J. (1963). The Southern Cheyennes. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 343
24. ^ McDermott, John D. "The Battles of Mud Springs and Blitz Creek, February 1865". Nebraska History Vol. 77 (1996, pp. 81–82)
25. ^ Bleed, Peter and Scott, Douglas D. "Archeological Interpretation of the Borderland Battle at Mud Springs, Nebraska". Dandy Plains Research 19 (Spring 2009), p. 16
26. ^ McDermott, pp. 111–112
27. ^ McDermott, pp. 112–114
28. ^ Fort Phil Kearney/Bozeman Trail Association Archived Oct 29, 2013, at the Wayback Machine, accessed 18 Aug 2013
29. ^ Brown, Dee. The Fetterman Massacre. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1962, pp. 160–165
30. ^ George Hyde. Ruby-red Cloud's Folk: A History of the Oglala Sioux Indians. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1937.
31. ^ Fowler 54
32. ^ Fowler 55
33. ^ Fowler 57
34. ^ Fowler 58
35. ^ Fowler 61
36. ^ Graham, Col. William A. The Custer Myth: A Source Book for Custeriana. New York: Bonanza Books, 1953, p. 109.
37. ^ "Water Human being's Story of the Boxing". 100 Voices . Retrieved August 26, 2013.
38. ^ "Left Hand's Story of the Battle". 100 Voices . Retrieved August 26, 2013.
39. ^ ^{a b} Leeming, David A. Cosmos Myths of the World. p. 39.
40. ^ ^{a b} Mary Inez Hilger, Arapaho Child Life and Its Cultural Background (1952)
41. ^ The Arapaho Projection: Food
42. ^ ^{a b c d e} Alfred Kroeber, The Arapaho (1902)
43. ^ ^{a b c} The Arapaho Projection: Clothes
44. ^ ^{a b} Sabine Lang, Men as Women, Women as Men ISBN 0292777957, 2010)
45. ^ Kroeber, Alfred Louis (January 1983). The Arapaho. ISBN0803277547.
46. ^ "Wind River Hotel's M Opening called "Celebrated Twenty-four hours" for Northern Arapaho; More than to come". County10.com. Archived from the original on June 26, 2015. Retrieved June 24, 2015.
47. ^ Cheyenne & Arapaho Tribes of Oklahoma. Archived June xiv, 2011, at the Wayback Automobile 2007 (retrieved February 7, 2009)
48. ^ "Sherman Coolidge Biography". Friends of Nez Perce Battlefields. Archived from the original on September 27, 2011. Retrieved September 30, 2012.
49. ^ "Man Plans American Indian Center in Kansas City". The Washington Times. Washington, D.C. Acquaintance Press. June 24, 2014. Archived from the original on June 26, 2014. Retrieved Baronial 3, 2020.
50. ^ May, Jon D. Little Raven (c. 1810–1889). Archived July 19, 2010, at the Wayback Machine Oklahoma Historical Club'southward Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History & Culture. (retrieved February 7, 2009)

General references [edit]

• Fowler, Loretta. Arapahoe Politics, 1851–1978: Symbols in Crises of Authorization. University of Nebraska Press, 1982. ISBN 0-8032-1956-3.
• McDermott, John D. Circle of Fire: The Indian War of 1865. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2000.
• Pritzker, Barry M. A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Civilization, and Peoples. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-19-513877-ane.
• Waldman, Carl. Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes. New York: Checkmark Books, 2006. ISBN 0-8160-6273-0.

Further reading [edit]

• Kroeber, Alfred Louis (1903). Traditions of the Arapaho . Retrieved August 24, 2012.
• Kroeber, Alfred Louis (1901). Decorative Symbolism of the Arapaho. Chiliad.P. Putnam's Sons. Retrieved Baronial 24, 2012.

External links [edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Arapaho.

• The Northern Arapaho Tribe
• The Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes of Oklahoma
• Arapaho Linguistic communication Sample
• Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture - Arapaho, Southern
• Arapaho Charter High School
• Arapaho artwork, in the collection of the National Museum of the American Indian
• Info Delight: Arapaho
• The Arapaho language: Documentation and Revitalization
• The Arapaho Project

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaho

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